spread equitably (Grove et al. 2014) and therefore
the animal biodiversity and associated benefits may
not be either (Leong et al. 2018). One person may not
perceive the presence of trees and wildlife habitat as
an ecosystem service, while another person might.
Research has long extolled the positive mental health
benefits of hearing and seeing songbirds and of being
close to nature in species-rich parks (Hedblom et al.
2017). However, disservices or hazards associated with
certain animal interactions also may occur. Bears and
raccoons scavenge garbage, coyotes and foxes can
predate pet animals, and deer over-browse and degrade
habitat. Invasive species such as Norway rats and fleas
can transmit zoonotic diseases. Some specific local pol-
icies encouraging native wildlife may have unintended
consequences by attracting undesirable species resulting
in disservices, like attracting flocks of noisy birds who
make a mess with their droppings (Whelan et al. 2015).
Thus, it is important to minimize disservices associated
with biodiversity in cities when creating wildlife habitat.
Habitat fragmentation
Land development can fragment natural habitats by
creating built features like roads and buildings. These
features act as a hindrance to biodiversity, as they
are often barriers to movement and limit species sur-
vival. The presence and connectivity of large patches
of habitat are extremely important and positively
related to biodiversity in urban areas (Beninde et
al. 2015). Considering fragmentation when man-
aging urban forests can help improve connectivity.
Mitigating impacts of development by protecting land-
scape buffers, mature trees, and wildlife corridors has
long been a part of the urban forestry and ecology
playbook, and their continuation can benefit wildlife
habitat and biodiversity in cities (Aronson et al. 2017).
Attitude adjustments
Shifting attitudes towards the positive aspects of urban
wildlife and biodiversity can promote protection or
restoration of more habitat and a functional urban
ecosystem (Bassett et al. 2022). Understanding why
people like certain wildlife species but have negative
attitudes towards others can help improve planning
efforts to support biodiversity. For example, negative
attitudes towards wildlife can come from percep-
tions of some species as dangerous or as a nuisance
(Schuetz and Johnston 2019). Tolerance may improve
once actual risk to personal safety or property damage
is mitigated (Hunold and Mazuchowski 2020).
In contrast, people can have positive attitudes towards
certain species. These preferences can relate to the pop-
ularity of a species and its cultural significance, such
as a species being a sports team mascot, or to >>
The Pileated Woodpecker is one of many bird species that
rely on standing dead trees for insect food sources and
for nesting. Licensed photo by Feng Yu/Adobe Stock
Raptors like Red-tailed Hawks provide ecosystem services and
signal a healthy ecosystem. They often hunt small mammals
like rodents and rabbits, helping keep populations in check.
Licensed photo by David Jeffrey Ringer/Adobe Stock
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